18 Cowry shells: Johnson 1970. See also the project website at heirloomrice.com, esp. In Deng et al. “Hundred” refers to the number of acres supposedly granted to each partner in the enterprise. 2007; Cao 2005:177 (slices); Wang 2004:19–20 (80 percent, 20); Atwell 2001:60–61 (famine); Chen 1980:190–92; Ho 1955:193–94; Goodrich 1938; Xu 1968:vol. 1996 (algal habitat); Frederickson 1993 (habits). My thanks to Josh D’Aluisio-Guerrieri and Devin Fitzgerald for translations from Chinese sources in this section. I am violently simplifying a complex comparison, but the point is valid. A lower number—eighty couples, plus, one assumes, children—occurs in Anon.
16 Tolerance of sweet potato, maize for bad conditions: Author’s interviews, Jiangsu Xuzhou Sweetpotato Research Centre; Song 2007; Mazumdar 2000:67–68; Marks 1998:310–11; Osborne 1989:48–49, 159–60; Ho 1955; Xu 1968:vol.
“Escravidão e Invenção da Liberdade” is also the name of his postgraduate program at the Federal University of Bahia.
Although rarer, malaria was likely present before drainage; Hasted, for instance, reports that Archbishop John Morton died of “quartan ague” in 1500 (1797–1801:vol. Commerce of the Philippines with Nueva España, 1640–1736. Alegría believes it most likely that he came between 1503 (the beginning of larger-scale slave importation) and 1508 (the conquest of Puerto Rico). Odds are that the Mesoamerican ball game is the world’s oldest continuously played team sport. 1619. In Varela and Gil eds. 66 “starving time”: Glover and Smith 2008:chap. 2001:187–90, 204–05 (sediment, 190); Polo 2001:211–13 (“profit,” 211); Ibn Battuta 1853–58:v. 4, 269–71 (“past counting,” 269); Odoric of Pordenone (Hakluyt Goldsmid ed. For the role of fire in worldwide grasslands, see Bond et al. 10 Garrido’s chapel as graveyard: Díaz del Castillo 1844:vol.
1992:235–54 (“a very suitable area of high land … not a closed port, but rather a very large bay in which all the vessels in the world will fit,” 247 [my thanks to Scott Sessions for helping me with the translation]). 2002 (zoospore travel); Jones et al. 253–54 (Saxony); Viazzo 2006:182–92, 212–15, 289–92 (Alps); Pfister 1983:esp. If they are bitten by an infected mosquito, the “immunity” greatly reduces the symptoms of malaria. Compared to England, Tsenacomoco had slower communications (no galloping horses), a dearth of plowed fields (no straining oxen) and pastures (no grazing cattle), and fewer and smaller roads (no carriages to accommodate). In his book, Mann argues that Columbus paved the way to the homogenocene, a particular feature of the anthropocene that is marked by a global homogenization of (agricultural) species, diseases, and tools brought about by the migration and transport that set in with the discovery of the new world.
1, bk. 1627. Instructions to Legazpi, 1 Sep. 1564. 11 Raised fields: Denevan 2001:24–25, 219, 264–65; Erickson 1994. My description is based heavily on Dobson’s work. 1992:485–503, at 498. 2, 254–55, 270–71 (Bahamas). 2, 33–39; Aguado 1919:vol.
The Islands Recently Discovered in the Southern and Indian Seas. 19 English malaria misery: Packard 2007:44–53; Hutchinson and Lindsay 2006 (causes of death); Dobson 1997:287–367 (Aubrey, 300; burial ratio, 345); 1980 (mortality rates, 357–64); Dickens 1978:1 (“brothers”); Defoe 1928:13 (“certainly true”); Wither 1880:139 (“had there”); Hasted 1797–1801:vol. 54 Peru initially viewed as blight source: Abad and Abad 2004:682; Andrivon 1996; Bourke 1993:148–49. 20 European famines, Malthusian trap: Clark 2007:1–8, 19–39; Komlos 1998 (“At least until 1800, but in some places even thereafter, the European demographic system was in a Malthusian homeostatic quasi-equilibrium,” 67); Bouton 1993:xix-xxi (food riots); Braudel 1981–84:vol. Gao: Data are poor, but a late-sixteenth-century census of compound houses in the central city came up with a population of forty to eighty thousand; presumably as many or more surrounded the central zone. 13–15; Pyne 1999 (“into metals,” 7), 1997a:301–08, 1997b, 1991 (“corridors of travel,” 504); Pyne et al. 16 Vulcanization chemistry: A good introduction is Sperling 2006:chaps. 2001; Conrad 1998:84 (“disease and starvation”). 6; Hamor 1615:803 (“discontented”); Rolfe 1614. 50 Fall in silver price consequences: Flynn and Giráldez 2008; 2002; 1997. My thanks to Scott Sessions for finding an English near equivalent. The plantains were imported from the Canary Islands, off the West African coast. When Sir Francis Drake sacked the city, it was too poor “for lacke of people to worke in the Mines” to give him much ransom. 67 More than fifty tons of silver: Quan 1972d:438–40. Lear-like, he retired to a faraway village, dividing his kingdom among his younger brothers.
1992. 10); Colmenares, R.d. To this day many Fujianese are more comfortable in one form or another of Min, an ancient offshoot of Chinese, than standard Mandarin.
As a result, according to Cindy Hale, a worm researcher at the University of Minnesota, "everything changes." Formosa Lost to Spain. The gradual replacement of Caribbean cattle by sugar thus increased the risk of malaria. Including tires, every car had about eighty pounds of rubber (Costa 1993:133).
67 Yellow Jack: Much in this section comes from McNeill 2010. Not a drop of rain fell in northern Ireland between August 28 and September 13 (Butler et al. Should any unlawful behavior begin to sprout up, the public will learn of it first and report it to local officials, who could then make a concerted effort to wipe them out” (Li, Y. Request to Establish a County. In idem:354–55. 47 Carolina slave trade: I am summarizing the argument in Gallay 2002; see also Snyder 2010; Bossy 2009; Laubrich 1913:119–22. 2006; Hendrix and Bohlen 2002:esp. 1 Introductory potato facts: Spooner and Hijmans 2001:2101 (species and types [but see later discussion]); Clarkson and Crawford 2001:70–73 (12.5 lbs. 2004, D’Altroy, 2002, and esp. 32 Tuckahoe: Author’s visits, Jamestown; Smith 2007b:276, 391; Rountree et al.
74 Thirty-one sites: Nevle and Bird 2008. (Emphasis mine.). 3, 259–70 (injury to insult, 260); Oviedo y Valdés 1851:vol. 80 Repeated massacres in Parián: Ruiz-Stovel 2009; Ollé Rodríguez 2006:28–29, 44–45; Chia 2006 (esp. 55 Potential M. ulei disaster, lack of progress on blight: U.S. Department of Defense 2008 (biological weapon); Lieberei 2007 (“dieback of trees,” 1); Onokpise 2004 (collection from Brazil); Garcia et al.
Potatoes and maize were, Smith thought, “the two most important improvements which the agriculture of Europe—perhaps, which Europe itself—has received from the great extension of its commerce and navigation” (vol. The number of birds is disputed, one issue being whether caged birds like parakeets and canaries are domesticated.
In addition, the level of soil organic matter fell below 1 percent in many areas; typical figures for U.S. farmland are 5 to 8 percent (author’s interview, Zhang Zhenzhong, Shaanxi Provincial Institute for Loess Plateau Control).
The 1625 death figure is from the Collection of Yearly Bills of Mortality. 74 Maluku mutiny: Borao 1998:237–39; MS 323.211.8370–72; Argensola, B. L. d. 1609. 34 Dependence on imports: Cobb 1949:30–31; López de Velasco 1894:503; Acosta 1894:306; Anon. 72 Fourth voyage: During Colón’s fourth voyage to the Americas (1502–04) the admiral’s nautical career effectively came to an end when he was forced to ground his worm-eaten, sinking ships on Jamaica. 55 “they meet”: Quoted in Tardieu 2009:123–24. For brief accounts of the Merchant Guild and the rivalrous English and Dutch East India Companies see, respectively, Smith 1940:chap. 3, 527–28 (orders to destroy ships); Kuwabara 1935:97–100 (suppression of foreign families). Santos-Granero and Barclay argue that conditions worsened ca. In Varela and Gils eds. Production rankings from Food and Agriculture Organization (faostat.fao.org). So commonly was the Virginia forest understood to be open that William Bullock, before his first visit there, explained (1649:3) that in Virginia people can see “above a mile and a half in the Wood, and the Trees stand at that distance, that you may drive Carts or Coaches between the thickest of them, being clear from boughs a great height.” (Bullock 1649:3). 36 Extra burden of maize: Song 2007:156–58; Osborne 1989:168. 64 Cartel: Schurz 1939:74–78; Philip II. Occasionally St. John’s, Newfoundland, is cited as the first long-lasting English colony, but most historians believe it had no permanent population before 1610.
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